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question:import os import subprocess import numpy as np import uuid # Import uuid to generate unique IDs from moviepy.editor import VideoFileClip from scipy.io import wavfile import random temporary_audio_files = [] # Define video file extensions and the output folder video_extensions = ['.mp4', '.mkv', '.wmv', '.avi'] output_folder = 'Output' def get_video_durations(include_subfolders): video_durations = {} for root, dirs, files in os.walk('.', topdown=True): if not include_subfolders: dirs[:] = [] for file in files: if file.lower().endswith(tuple(video_extensions)): video_path = os.path.join(root, file) try: # Open the video file and extract metadata video_clip = VideoFileClip(video_path) if not video_clip.audio: # Vérifier si la vidéo a une piste audio print(f"La vidéo {video_path} n'a pas de piste audio.") continue # Passer à la vidéo suivante video_duration = video_clip.duration video_durations[video_path] = video_duration except Exception as e: print(f"Error processing video {video_path}: {e}") finally: video_clip.close() # Make sure to close the clip to release resources return video_durations def ask_min_or_max_duration_preference(): print("Souhaitez-vous vous baser sur la durée de la vidéo la plus courte ou la plus longue pour le calcul du nombre de segments ?") print("1- Sur la vidéo la plus courte") print("2- Sur la vidéo la plus longue") while True: choice = input("Veuillez entrer votre choix (1 ou 2) : ") if choice in ('1', '2'): return choice else: print("Entrée non valide, veuillez réessayer.") def ask_batch_or_individual_processing(): print("Comment souhaitez-vous traiter les fichiers vidéo ?") print("1- Par lot (traiter tous les fichiers avec les mêmes paramètres)") print("2- Individuellement (définir des paramètres pour chaque fichier)") while True: choice = input("Veuillez entrer le numéro de votre choix (1 ou 2) : ").strip() if choice in ('1', '2'): return choice else: print("Entrée non valide, veuillez réessayer.") def ask_for_number_of_moments(max_segments): while True: num_input = input(f"Veuillez entrer le nombre de moments forts à extraire (maximum {max_segments}): ") try: num = int(num_input) if num > 0 and num <= max_segments: return num else: print(f"Le nombre doit être supérieur à 0 et inférieur ou égal à {max_segments}. Veuillez réessayer.") except ValueError: print("Entrée non valide, veuillez réessayer avec un nombre entier.") def ask_yes_no_question(question): answer = None while answer not in ('1', '2'): print(question) print("1- Oui") print("2- Non") answer = input("Veuillez entrer le numéro de votre choix (1 ou 2) : ").strip() if answer not in ('1', '2'): print("Entrée non valide, veuillez réessayer.") return answer == '1' def ask_offset_type(): print("Souhaitez-vous un décalage temporel relatif ou absolu ?") print("1- Relatif (pourcentage)") print("2- Absolu (secondes)") while True: choice = input("Veuillez entrer le numéro de votre choix (1 ou 2) : ").strip() if choice in ('1', '2'): return choice else: print("Entrée non valide, veuillez réessayer.") def get_offset_value(video_duration, offset_type): if offset_type == '1': # Relative offset while True: percent = input("Entrez le pourcentage du temps vidéo à ignorer : ") try: percent_value = float(percent) return percent_value * video_duration / 100 except ValueError: print("Veuillez entrer un nombre valide.") else: # Absolute offset while True: seconds = input("Entrez le nombre de secondes à ignorer : ") try: return float(seconds) except ValueError: print("Veuillez entrer un nombre valide.") def ask_for_segment_duration(allowable_duration, video_duration, starting_offset_seconds, ending_offset_seconds): while True: duration = input("Quelle est la durée (en secondes) de chaque segment vidéo à extraire ? ") try: segment_duration = float(duration) if segment_duration > 0 and segment_duration <= allowable_duration: # Calculez le nombre maximal de segments pour une vidéo available_duration = video_duration - (starting_offset_seconds + ending_offset_seconds) max_segments = int(available_duration // segment_duration) return segment_duration, max_segments else: print(f"La durée doit être un nombre positif et inférieure ou égale à {allowable_duration} secondes.") except ValueError: print("Veuillez entrer un nombre valide.") def ask_directory_preference(): print("Souhaitez-vous inclure les sous-dossiers dans la recherche des vidéos ?") print("1- Oui") print("2- Non") choice = input("Veuillez entrer le numéro de votre choix (1 ou 2) : ") return choice.strip() == '1' # Retourne True si l'utilisateur choisit '1' (Oui), False sinon def calculate_loudness(audio_data): if audio_data.ndim == 1: volume = audio_data.astype('float32') ** 2 else: volume = np.mean(audio_data.astype('float32') ** 2, axis=1) volume_dB = 10 * np.log10(volume + 1e-9) # +1e-9 to avoid log(0) and convert to dB return volume_dB def find_loudest_moments(audio_filename, num_moments, segment_duration, video_duration, starting_offset, ending_offset): rate, audio_data = wavfile.read(audio_filename) # Convert stereo to mono if necessary if audio_data.ndim == 2: audio_data = np.mean(audio_data, axis=1) volume_dB = calculate_loudness(audio_data) segment_half_duration = segment_duration / 2.0 start_index = int(starting_offset * rate) end_index = int((video_duration - ending_offset) * rate) moments = [] volumes = [] while len(moments) < num_moments and (end_index - start_index) > 0: index = np.argmax(volume_dB[start_index:end_index]) moment = (start_index + index) / rate moment_volume = volume_dB[start_index + index] # Boucle jusqu’à ce qu’un moment valide soit trouvé ou que la plage de recherche soit vide while index >= 0 and (moment - segment_half_duration < starting_offset or moment + segment_half_duration > video_duration - ending_offset): # Marque le pic actuel comme utilisé volume_dB[start_index + index] = -np.inf # Recherche le prochain pic le plus fort index = np.argmax(volume_dB[start_index:end_index]) moment = (start_index + index) / rate if index < 0: # Si aucun pic valide n’est trouvé, sortir de la boucle while principale break moments.append(moment) volumes.append(moment_volume) # Supprime le volume autour du moment trouvé pour éviter de choisir des moments proches clear_range_start = max(0, start_index + index - int(rate * segment_half_duration)) clear_range_end = min(len(volume_dB), start_index + index + int(rate * segment_half_duration)) volume_dB[clear_range_start:clear_range_end] = -np.inf return moments, volumes def extract_segments(video_path, moments, segment_duration, video_duration, peak_position): if not os.path.exists(output_folder): os.makedirs(output_folder) base_name = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(video_path))[0] half_segment_duration = segment_duration / 2 for i, moment in enumerate(moments): if peak_position == '1': # 1/4 start_time = max(moment - segment_duration * 0.25, 0) elif peak_position == '2': # 1/2 start_time = max(moment - segment_duration * 0.5, 0) elif peak_position == '3': # 3/4 start_time = max(moment - segment_duration * 0.75, 0) end_time = min(start_time + segment_duration, video_duration) output_filename = f"{base_name}_moment{i + 1}.mp4" output_path = os.path.join(output_folder, output_filename) command = [ "ffmpeg", "-y", # Overwrite output files without asking "-ss", str(start_time), # Start time "-i", video_path, # Input file "-t", str(min(segment_duration, video_duration - start_time)), # Duration or remaining video "-c:v", "libx264", # Specify video codec for output "-preset", "medium", # Specify the encoding preset (trade-off between encoding speed and quality) "-crf", "23", # Specify the Constant Rate Factor for quality (lower means better quality) "-c:a", "aac", # Specify audio codec for output "-strict", "-2", # Necessary for some versions of ffmpeg to use experimental aac encoder "-b:a", "192k", # Specify the audio bitrate output_path # Output path ] try: subprocess.run(command, check=True, stderr=subprocess.PIPE) print(f"Extracted and re-encoded {output_filename}") except subprocess.CalledProcessError as e: # Catch the exception for this process, print an error message, # but don't break from the for loop. err_msg = e.stderr.decode('utf-8') if e.stderr else 'Unknown error' print(f"Failed to extract segment from {video_path}: {err_msg}") def store_segment_info(video_path, moment, volume, order): base_name = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(video_path))[0] output_filename = f"{base_name}_moment{order}.mp4" output_path = os.path.join(output_folder, output_filename) extracted_segments.append({ 'path': output_path, 'timestamp': moment, 'volume': volume }) def ask_sorting_preference(): print("Comment souhaitez-vous trier les vidéos extraites ?") print("1- Par ordre de lecture de la vidéo") print("2- Par ordre inverse de lecture de la vidéo") print("3- Par volume croissant") print("4- Par volume décroissant") print("5- Aléatoire") choice = int(input("Veuillez entrer le numéro de votre choix : ")) return choice def sort_moments(moments, volumes, choice): if choice == 1: # Par ordre de lecture de la vidéo zipped = sorted(zip(moments, volumes), key=lambda x: x[0]) elif choice == 2: # Par ordre inverse de lecture de la vidéo zipped = sorted(zip(moments, volumes), key=lambda x: x[0], reverse=True) elif choice == 3: # Par volume croissant zipped = sorted(zip(moments, volumes), key=lambda x: x[1]) elif choice == 4: # Par volume décroissant zipped = sorted(zip(moments, volumes), key=lambda x: x[1], reverse=True) elif choice == 5: # Pas de tri, sélection aléatoire zipped = list(zip(moments, volumes)) random.shuffle(zipped) else: zipped = zip(moments, volumes) # Unzip the list of tuples to two lists sorted_moments, sorted_volumes = zip(*zipped) if zipped else ([], []) return list(sorted_moments), list(sorted_volumes) def get_video_durations(include_subfolders): video_durations = {} for root, dirs, files in os.walk('.', topdown=True): # Si l'utilisateur ne souhaite pas inclure les sous-dossiers, nous modifions dirs sur place if not include_subfolders: dirs[:] = [] # Cela empêchera os.walk de descendre dans tous les sous-dossiers # La suite du traitement des fichiers reste inchangée for file in files: if file.lower().endswith(tuple(video_extensions)): video_path = os.path.join(root, file) try: # Essayez d'ouvrir et d'extraire les métadonnées du fichier vidéo. video_clip = VideoFileClip(video_path) video_duration = video_clip.duration video_durations[video_path] = video_duration except Exception as e: # Si une erreur survient, affichez un message et ignorez le fichier vidéo. print(f"Error processing video {video_path}: {e}") finally: # Assurez-vous de fermer le clip pour libérer les ressources. video_clip.close() return video_durations def confirm_segment_number_or_ask_again(video_duration, starting_offset_seconds, ending_offset_seconds): while True: segment_duration, max_segments = ask_for_segment_duration(video_duration - (starting_offset_seconds + ending_offset_seconds), video_duration, starting_offset_seconds, ending_offset_seconds) print(f"Avec cette durée, vous pouvez extraire jusqu'à {max_segments} segments.") confirmation = ask_yes_no_question("Voulez-vous continuer avec cette durée de segments ?") if confirmation: num_moments = ask_for_number_of_moments(max_segments) return segment_duration, num_moments # Retournons maintenant le nombre de moments choisis else: print("Veuillez entrer une nouvelle durée pour les segments.") def ask_peak_position(): print("Où doit être situé le pic sonore dans la vidéo extraite ?") print("1- A 1/4 du temps de lecture de la vidéo") print("2- A 1/2 du temps de lecture de la vidéo") print("3- A 3/4 du temps de lecture de la vidéo") while True: choice = input("Veuillez entrer le numéro de votre choix (1, 2, ou 3) : ").strip() if choice in ('1', '2', '3'): return choice else: print("Entrée non valide, veuillez réessayer.") def main(): batch_or_individual = ask_batch_or_individual_processing() include_subfolders = ask_yes_no_question("Souhaitez-vous inclure les sous-dossiers dans la recherche des vidéos ?") video_durations = get_video_durations(include_subfolders) if not video_durations: print("Aucune vidéo trouvée pour l'analyse.") return processed_videos = 0 if batch_or_individual == '1': # Traitement par lot duration_choice = ask_min_or_max_duration_preference() reference_video_duration = min(video_durations.values()) if duration_choice == '1' else max(video_durations.values()) perform_temporal_offset = ask_yes_no_question("Souhaitez-vous effectuer un retrait temporel (début et fin) pour l'analyse des vidéos ?") if perform_temporal_offset: offset_type = ask_offset_type() print("Configuration du retrait temporel pour le début de la vidéo:") starting_offset_seconds = get_offset_value(reference_video_duration, offset_type) print("Configuration du retrait temporel pour la fin de la vidéo:") ending_offset_seconds = get_offset_value(reference_video_duration, offset_type) else: starting_offset_seconds = 0 ending_offset_seconds = 0 segment_duration, num_moments = confirm_segment_number_or_ask_again(reference_video_duration, starting_offset_seconds, ending_offset_seconds) sorting_preference = ask_sorting_preference() peak_position = ask_peak_position() for video_path, duration in video_durations.items(): print(f"Traitement de la vidéo : {video_path}") # Traitement individuel pour chaque vidéo if batch_or_individual == '2': perform_temporal_offset = ask_yes_no_question("Souhaitez-vous effectuer un retrait temporel (début et fin) pour l'analyse de cette vidéo ?") if perform_temporal_offset: offset_type = ask_offset_type() print("Configuration du retrait temporel pour le début de la vidéo:") starting_offset_seconds = get_offset_value(duration, offset_type) print("Configuration du retrait temporel pour la fin de la vidéo:") ending_offset_seconds = get_offset_value(duration, offset_type) else: starting_offset_seconds = 0 ending_offset_seconds = 0 segment_duration, num_moments = confirm_segment_number_or_ask_again(duration, starting_offset_seconds, ending_offset_seconds) sorting_preference = ask_sorting_preference() peak_position = ask_peak_position() audio_path = f'temp_audio_{uuid.uuid4().hex}.wav' temporary_audio_files.append(audio_path) try: with VideoFileClip(video_path) as video_clip: if video_clip.audio: video_clip.audio.write_audiofile(audio_path, codec='pcm_s16le', fps=44100, nbytes=2, buffersize=2000) moments, volumes = find_loudest_moments(audio_path, num_moments, segment_duration, duration, starting_offset_seconds, ending_offset_seconds) selected_moments, associated_volumes = sort_moments(moments, volumes, sorting_preference) extract_segments(video_path, selected_moments, segment_duration, duration, peak_position) processed_videos += 1 print(f"Traitement terminé pour la vidéo '{video_path}'") else: print(f"La vidéo {video_path} n'a pas de piste audio. Aucun moment ne peut être extrait.") continue # Passer à la vidéo suivante finally: if audio_path in temporary_audio_files and os.path.exists(audio_path): os.remove(audio_path) temporary_audio_files.remove(audio_path) # Pour les traitements par lot, pas de demande de satisfaction après chaque vidéo if batch_or_individual == '2': satisfied = ask_yes_no_question("Êtes-vous satisfait de la position du pic sonore dans les vidéos extraites ?") if not satisfied: print("Les paramètres peuvent être ajustés pour la vidéo suivante.") print(f"Le traitement de toutes les vidéos est terminé. Nombre total de vidéos traitées : {processed_videos}") if __name__ == "__main__": main()
answer:Votre script Python semble avoir une logique correcte pour la plupart de ses fonctionnalités. Cependant, il y a un problème avec la duplication inutile du code dans la fonction `find_loudest_moments`, ce qui peut causer des boucles infinies ou des résultats incorrects. De plus, le problème que vous rencontrez, où le script reste bloqué lors de la recherche des moments les plus fort, pourrait être dû à une logique incorrecte pour trouver et enlever les moments une fois qu'ils sont trouvés. Je vais vous aider à rectifier cette fonction. Vous devez supprimer la partie du code qui a été dupliquée et s'assurer que pour chaque moment trouvé, vous le marquez comme utilisé en le mettant à `-np.inf`, puis trouvez le prochain moment le plus fort en actualisant `index`. Voici comment devrait être la fonction `find_loudest_moments` corrigée pour résoudre les problèmes : ```python def find_loudest_moments(audio_filename, num_moments, segment_duration, video_duration, starting_offset, ending_offset): rate, audio_data = wavfile.read(audio_filename) # Convert stereo to mono if necessary if audio_data.ndim == 2: audio_data = np.mean(audio_data, axis=1) volume_dB = calculate_loudness(audio_data) segment_half_duration = segment_duration / 2.0 start_index = int(starting_offset * rate) end_index = int((video_duration - ending_offset) * rate) moments = [] volumes = [] # While there are less moments found than requested and there is still data to analyze while len(moments) < num_moments and (end_index - start_index) > segment_half_duration * rate * 2: index = np.argmax(volume_dB[start_index:end_index]) moment = (start_index + index) / rate moment_volume = volume_dB[start_index + index] # Move the start_index past the recently found moment start_index = start_index + index + int(segment_half_duration * rate) # Suppress loudness of the recently found moment to avoid finding it again clear_range_start = max(0, start_index + index - int(segment_half_duration * rate)) clear_range_end = min(len(volume_dB), start_index + index + int(segment_half_duration * rate)) volume_dB[clear_range_start:clear_range_end] = -np.inf # Append the moment and volume to their respective lists moments.append(moment) volumes.append(moment_volume) return moments, volumes ``` N'oubliez pas que cela ne garantit pas que le moment trouvé sera toujours valide par rapport aux `starting_offset` et `ending_offset` car cet ajustement ne vérifie pas si le moment est dans ces limites après l'avoir trouvé. Si cela est requis, vous devrez également vérifier la validité après avoir trouvé le moment et avant de l'ajouter à la liste des moments. Assurez-vous également que la commande `ffmpeg` dans la fonction `extract_segments` fonctionne correctement et que le processus se termine comme prévu. Un problème dans la ligne de commande `ffmpeg` peut aussi bloquer le script. Enfin, comme toujours, faites des tests approfondis après avoir effectué ces changements pour vous assurer que le script fonctionne correctement dans tous les scénarios prévus.
question:10 Household A1-A10: "Against" (blower), willing to pay 300, 1 Household B: "For" (blower), willing to pay 2000, Efficient solution: "Against" bc 10 Households total value "against" more than 1 household value "for". If vote Without bribery, will result in an "Against " - Efficient solution. If Vote With bribery, B pays 350 to 5 households A1 -A5 to get their votes, majority vote will be "For" which is Not the efficient solution, i.e., Vote with bribery will Not ensure the efficient solution. But this conflicts with the coase theorem principle and the answer choice "a". ?
answer:The Coase Theorem suggests that if property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are negligible, parties will bargain to an efficient outcome regardless of the initial allocation of rights. However, this scenario involves a public good (or bad) – the existence of a blower in a neighborhood – which complicates the application of the theorem. Let's analyze the situation you've described: - Ten households (A1-A10) are against the blower, each willing to pay up to 300 to avoid it, for a total of 3,000 (300 x 10). - One household (B) is for the blower and is willing to pay up to 2,000 to have it. Without any bargaining or bribery: The majority would vote against the blower, as 10 out of 11 households prefer that outcome. Since the total willingness to pay of the against group (3,000) is greater than that of the for group (2,000), this also implies an efficient outcome – the outcome that maximizes total value for the community. With bribery: Household B could potentially sway the vote by bribing a subset of the against group. Let's say B offers 350 each to 5 of the against group households. Now, these households individually gain more from the bribe (350) than they would lose from having the blower (300). If B convinces five households to change their vote, the majority will shift to "for," and the blower will be installed. This outcome is not efficient, as the total value of the against group (3,000) still exceeds the total value of the for group, including the bribes (2,000 + 1,750 = 3,750). Where does this leave the Coase Theorem? The Coase Theorem holds under the assumptions of zero transaction costs and well-defined property rights. However, there are several reasons why the theorem may not apply perfectly in this case: **Transaction Costs**: Bribery is a form of transaction cost. The need to negotiate and pay off other households incurs costs and may not lead to an efficient outcome. **Public Good Nature of the Decision**: The presence of a blower affects everyone in the neighborhood and is non-excludable, hence features of a public good (or bad) which complicates direct negotiations. *Incomplete Property Rights**: If there are no property rights associated with the noise or air pollution from the blower, there cannot be an initial allocation of rights to negotiate from, which is crucial for Coase's theorem to apply. **Distributional Concerns**: The Coase Theorem is focused on efficiency, not equity. Even if an outcome is efficient, it may not be equitable. The distribution of wealth and power can affect who benefits from such bargaining. **Strategic Behavior**: Individuals may act strategically in their reporting of valuations or in their acceptance of bribes, undermining the efficiency of the final outcome. **Legal Constraints**: Bribery may be illegal or against community norms, which prevents the theorem's conditions from being met. In practical terms, while the Coase Theorem provides a fundamental insight about the potential for bargaining to lead to efficient outcomes, in many real-world situations, there are barriers to achieving these efficient outcomes through negotiation alone. The scenario you described illustrates a case where the theorem's ideal conditions are not met, and therefore, the efficient outcome may not be achieved through market transactions like bribery.
question:mikro ekonomiden gayri safi yurtiçi hasıla kavramlarını anlatır mısın
answer:Tabii ki, ancak mikro ekonomiyle gayri safi yurtiçi hasıla (GSYİH) kavramlarını birbirleriyle karıştırmamak önemli. Mikro ekonomi ve makro ekonomi, ekonominin iki ana dalıdır ve bu iki disiplin farklı konuları ele alır. Mikro Ekonomi, ekonominin temel bir analiz düzeyidir ve bireylerin, hanelerin ve şirketlerin ekonomik kararlarını ve nasıl etkileşime girdiklerini inceler. Fiyatların nasıl belirlendiği, bireylerin mal ve hizmetlere nasıl karar verdikleri, firmaların üretim ve fiyatlandırma stratejileri, piyasaların nasıl işlediği ve piyasa yapıları gibi konuların üzerinde durur. Piyasalardaki arz ve talep etkileşimleri, optimum tüketici seçimi, firmaların üretim teorisi ve rekabet piyasalarının çalışması mikro ekonominin merkezi konuları arasındadır. Gayri Safi Yurtiçi Hasıla (GSYİH) ise makro ekonomik bir terimdir. Makro ekonomi, genel ekonomik işleyişi, ulusal ve global ekonomiyi inceleyen disiplindir. GSYİH, bir ülkedeki tüm nihai mal ve hizmetlerin bir yıl içindeki toplam piyasa değeridir ve o ülkenin ekonomik performansının bir ölçütü olarak kabul edilir. GSYİH, bir ülkenin ekonomik büyümesini ve yaşam standardını gözlemlemek için sıkça kullanılır ve aşağıdaki bileşenlerden oluşur: - Tüketim: Hanelerin nihai mal ve hizmetleri tüketimi. - Yatırım: İşletmelerin makineler, binalar gibi sermaye mallarına ve stoklarına yaptıkları yatırımlar. - Kamu harcamaları: Devletin mal ve hizmet tüketimi (savunma, eğitim hizmetleri, vs.). - Net ihracat: İhracatın toplam değeri ile ithalatın toplam değerinin farkı. (İhracat - İthalat) GSYİH iki şekilde hesaplanabilir: nominal ve reel. Nominal GSYİH, cari piyasa fiyatlarıyla hesaplanırken, reel GSYİH fiyat seviyelerindeki değişiklikleri ayarlamak için sabit fiyatlarla hesaplanır ve böylece zaman içinde daha gerçekçi bir büyüme karşılaştırması sağlar. Kısacası, mikro ekonomi bireysel akterlerin ekonomik kararlarını incelerken, makro ekonomi ulusal ekonominin geneline, GSYİH gibi genel performans göstergelerine odaklanır. Bu iki kavram farklı analiz seviyeleri ve yaklaşımları temsil etse de birbirleriyle ilişkilidir ve bir ekonominin tam anlamıyla anlaşılması her iki disiplinin de incelenmesini gerektirir.
question:Ответь с латинскими терминами 50. Позвоночный столб: строение, соединения между позвонками. Формирование изгибов. Движения позвоночного столба. 51. Добавочный и подъязычные нервы, их анатомия, топография, области иннервации. 52. Подмышечная и плечевая артерии: топография, ветви и области, кровоснабжаемые ими. Кровоснабжение плечевого сустава. 53. Спинномозговой нерв, его формирование. Ветви. Задние ветви спинномозговых нервов и области их распределения. Формирование спинномозговых нервов. 54 . Мышцы спины: анатомия, функции. Фасции спины. 55. Брюшина: строение, первичные и вторичные связки, брыжейки, большой сальник. Отношение органов к брюшине.
answer:50. Columna vertebralis: structura, iuncturae intervertebrales. Curvationes formationis. Columna vertebralis constat ex vertebribus (vertebrae), quae sunt ossa inter se connectunt per iuncturas et discos intervertebrales (disci intervertebrales). Quattuor curvationes sunt: cervicalis (lordosis), thoracica (kyphosis), lumbalis (lordosis) et sacrococcygea (kyphosis), quae durante evolutione binoetica et postnatali formantur. 51. Nervus accessorius et nervi hypoglossi: anatomia, topographia, innervationis regiones. Nervus accessorius (XI nervus cranialis) movet musculos sternocleidomastoideum et trapezius. Nervus hypoglossus (XII nervus cranialis) est responsabilis pro motu linguae. 52. Arteria axillaris et arteria brachialis: topographia, rami et regiones vasculatae. Arteria axillaris sub clavicula in axilla inchoat et in arteriam brachialem mutatur. Rami arteriae axillaris et brachialis multarum structurarum sanguinem supplent, inter quas musculis et humero. Arteria circumflexa humeri anterior et posterior sanguinem ad capsulam articularem humeri offerunt. 53. Nervus spinalis: formatio. Rami. Rami posteriores nervorum spinalium et distributionis regiones. Singuli nervi spinales (nervi spinales) ex radicibus anterioribus et posterioribus formantur, quae de medulla spinali excedunt. Rami posteriores (rami dorsales) cutem et musculos dorsales innervant. 54. Musculi dorsi: anatomia, functiones. Fasciae dorsi. Musculi dorsi varia includunt, ut musculi latissimus dorsi, trapezius, levator scapulae, et rhomboideus. Hae musculi corporis, capitis et brachii motum assistunt. Fasciae dorsi sunt membranae fibrosae quae musculos dorsales involvunt. 55. Peritoneum: structura, ligamenta primaria et secundaria, mesenteria, omentum majus. Peritoneum est membrana serosa quae cavitatem abdominalem tapet. Ligamenta primaria includunt ligamentum falciforme et ligamenta secundaria formantur a peritoneo viscorum. Mesenteria viscerum intestinalium sustentationem providet, et omentum majus est duplicatura peritonei copiosa adipe quae stomachum dependet et super intestina posita est. Organa intra peritoneum "intraperitoneal," "retroperitoneal" vel "extraperitoneal" secundum relationem ad peritoneum classificantur.