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question:asserted that law was a command of a sovereign and that citizens were under a duty to obey that command. Other writers say that men and women in primitive societies formed rules themselves, i.e. that the rules or laws sprang from within the group itself. Only later were such rules laid down by a sov- ereign authority and imposed on the group or people subject to them.

answer:asserted that law was a command of a sovereign and that citizens were under ادعا شده که قانون دستوری از سوی یک حاکم مطلق بود و شهروندان وظیفه داشتند آن دستور را اطاعت کنند. a duty to obey that command. Other writers say that men and women in وظیفه داشتند که آن دستور را اطاعت کنند. نویسندگان دیگر می‌گویند که مردان و زنان در primitive societies formed rules themselves, i.e., that the rules or laws sprang جوامع ابتدایی خود قوانین را شکل دادند، یعنی قوانین یا مقررات از داخل گروه خود برخاست. from within the group itself. Only later were such rules laid down by a sov- فقط بعدها چنین قوانینی توسط یک قدرت حاکم مطرح و ereign authority and imposed on the group or people subject to them. بر گروه یا مردمی که تحت آن بودند تحمیل شد.

question:(d) Enforcement (e) The State Clearly, unless a law is enforced it loses its effectiveness as a law and those persons subject to it will regard it as dead. 'The chief characteristic of law is that it is enforced, such enforcement being today carried out by the State, Thus if A steals a wallet from B, A may be prosecuted before the court and may be punished. The court may then order the restitution of the wallet to its rightful owner, B. The force' used is known as a sanction and it is this sanction which the State administers to secure obedience to its rules. A State is a territorial division in which a community or people lives subject tO a uniform system of law administered by a sovereign authority, e.g. a parliament. The United Kingdom, which comprises a parliamentary union of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, is for our purposes the State. Parliament at Westminster legislates for England, Scotland, and Wales, (although, in accordance with recent devolution legislation, Scotland and Wales now have separate parliamentary assemblies which are empowered to legislate with regard to specified internal affairs such as education), and also in respect of some matters (such as defence and coinage) for Northern Ireland. Scotland has itS own legal system, different in many ways from that of England and Wales, and has been influenced by Roman and Continental law to a far greater extent.

answer:(d) Enforcement (د) اجرا (e) The State (ه) دولت Clearly, unless a law is enforced, it loses its effectiveness as a law and those بدیهی است، مگر اینکه قانونی اجرا شود، اثربخشی خود به عنوان یک قانون را از دست می‌دهد و آن persons subject to it will regard it as dead. 'The chief characteristic of law is افرادی که تحت آن هستند، آن را مرده تلقی خواهند کرد. "ویژگی اصلی قانون این است که that it is enforced, such enforcement being today carried out by the State, آن اجرا می‌شود، اجرایی که امروزه توسط دولت انجام می‌گیرد، Thus if A steals a wallet from B, A may be prosecuted before the court and پس اگر A از B کیف پولی بدزدد، A می‌تواند پیش دادگاه محاکمه و may be punished. The court may then order the restitution of the wallet to مجازات شود. دادگاه سپس می‌تواند بازگرداندن کیف پول به its rightful owner, B. The force used is known as a sanction and it is this صاحب اصلی آن، B را دستور دهد. نیروی استفاده شده به عنوان تحریم شناخته می‌شود و همین sanction which the State administers to secure obedience to its rules. تحریم است که دولت برای تضمین اطاعت از قوانین خود اداره می‌کند. A State is a territorial division in which a community or people lives یک دولت تقسیم‌بندی سرزمینی است که در آن یک جامعه یا مردم subject to a uniform system of law administered by a sovereign authority, تحت یک سیستم یکنواخت قانونی که توسط یک قدرت حاکم اداره می‌شود، زندگی می‌کنند، e.g., a parliament. به عنوان مثال، یک پارلمان. The United Kingdom, which comprises a parliamentary union of England, پادشاهی متحده، که شامل اتحادی پارلمانی از انگلستان، Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, is for our purposes the State. وِلز، اسکاتلند، و ایرلند شمالی است، برای اهداف ما به عنوان دولت است. Parliament at Westminster legislates for England, Scotland, and Wales, پارلمان وست‌مینستر برای انگلستان، اسکاتلند، و وِلز قانونگذاری می‌کند، (although, in accordance with recent devolution legislation, Scotland and (هرچند، مطابق با قانون اختیارات تفویضی اخیر، اسکاتلند و Wales now have separate parliamentary assemblies which are empowered to وِلز اکنون مجامع پارلمانی جداگانه‌ای دارند که اختیار دارند برای legislate with regard to specified internal affairs such as education), and also مسائل داخلی مشخصی مانند آموزش و پرورش قانونگذاری کنند)، و همچنین in respect of some matters (such as defence and coinage) for Northern در رابطه با برخی مسائل (مانند دفاع و سکه‌زنی) برای Ireland. Scotland has its own legal system, different in many ways from that ایرلند شمالی. اسکاتلند سیستم حقوقی خاص خود را دارد، که در بسیاری از جهات با آن of England and Wales, and has been influenced by Roman and Continental انگلیس و وِلز متفاوت است، و تحت تأثیر حقوق رومی و قاره‌ای قرار گرفته است به میزان زیادی.

question:Law may be classified in various ways. The four main divisions are as follows: (a) Criminal Law and Civil Law Public Law and Private Law (c) Substantive Law and Procedural Law (d) Municipal Law and Public International Law Criminal Law is that part of the law which characterizes certain kinds of wrongdoings as offences against the State, not necessarily violating any pri- vate right, and punishable by the State. Crime is defined as an act of dis- obedience of the law forbidden under pain of punishment. The punishment State absolute because discharge. it For disturbs example, the tO public commit peace and murder is security, an for crime ranges from death or imprisonment to money penalty (fine) or offence against the SO the action iS brought by the State and not the victim. 'T'he police are the public servants whose duty is the prevention and detec- tion of crime and the prosecution of offenders before the courts of law. Private citizens may legally enforce the criminal law by beginning proceed- ings themselves, but, except in minor cases of common assault, rarely do so in practice. Civil Law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals towards each other. It includes the following: Law of Contract, dealing with that branch of the law which deter- mines whether a promise is legally enforceable and what are its legal consequences. Law of Tort. A tort is defined as a civil wrong for which the remedy is a common law action for unliquidated (i.e. unspecified or unascertained) damages and wbich is not exclusively the breach of a contract or breacb of trust or other merely equitable obligation. (Salmond: Law of Torts.) Examples of torts are: nuisance, negligence, defamation, and trespass Law of Property is that part of the law which determines the nature Seoery - for example, rights of 'ownership' of land, or rights under a and extent of the rights which people may enjoy over land and other (iv) Law of Succession is that part of the law which determines the devolu- tion of property on the death of the former owner. (v) Family Law is that branch of the law which defines the rights, duties, and status of husband and wife, parent and child, and other members of a household.

answer:Law may be classified in various ways. The four main divisions are as follows: قانون را می‌توان به روش‌های مختلفی طبقه‌بندی کرد. چهار تقسیم اصلی به شرح زیر است: (a) Criminal Law and Civil Law (الف) قانون جنایی و قانون مدنی Public Law and Private Law قانون عمومی و قانون خصوصی (c) Substantive Law and Procedural Law (ج) قانون ماهوی و قانون رویه‌ای (d) Municipal Law and Public International Law (د) قانون داخلی و قانون بین‌الملل عمومی Criminal Law is that part of the law which characterizes certain kinds of قانون جنایی آن بخش از قانون است که برخی از انواع wrongdoings as offences against the State, not necessarily violating any pri- تخلفات را به عنوان جرایم علیه دولت مشخص می‌کند، که الزاماً نقض حقی خصوصی نیست، و vate right, and punishable by the State. Crime is defined as an act of dis- توسط دولت قابل مجازات است. جرم به عنوان یک عمل عدم obedience of the law forbidden under pain of punishment. The punishment اطاعت از قانون که تحت عذاب مجازات ممنوع است، تعریف شده است. مجازات State absolute because discharge. For example, to commit murder is an حکومت برای رفع آن مطلق است. به عنوان مثال، ارتکاب قتل یک offence against the جرم علیه SO the action is پس اقدام brought by the State and not the victim. توسط دولت و نه قربانی انجام می‌شود. The police are the public servants whose duty is the prevention and detec- پلیس، کارکنان دولتی هستند که وظیفه‌شان پیشگیری و کشف tion of crime and the prosecution of offenders before the courts of law. جرم و تعقیب مجرمین پیش دادگاه‌های قضایی است. Civil Law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals towards قانون مدنی با حقوق و وظایف افراد نسبت به each other. It includes the following: یکدیگر مربوط است. شامل موارد زیر است: Law of Contract, dealing with that branch of the law which deter- قانون قرارداد، که با آن شاخه از قانون سروکار دارد که تعیین می‌کند mines whether a promise is legally enforceable and what are its legal آیا یک قول قانوناً قابل اجرا است و چه پیامدهای قانونی دارد. consequences. Law of Tort. A tort is defined as a civil wrong for which the remedy is a قانون دلواختگی. دلواختگی به عنوان یک اشتباه مدنی تعریف شده است که درمان آن یک common law action for unliquidated (i.e. unspecified or unascertained) اقدام حقوقی عمومی برای غرامت‌های غیرمشخص است و damages and which is not exclusively the breach of a contract or breach که به طور انحصاری نقض قرارداد یا نقض of trust or other merely equitable obligation. (Salmond: Law of Torts.) اعتماد یا سایر تعهدات صرفاً انصافی نیست. (سالموند: قانون دلواختگی‌ها.) Examples of torts are: nuisance, negligence, defamation, and trespass نمونه‌هایی از دلواختگی‌ها عبارتند از: مزاحمت، بی‌مبالاتی، تهمت، و تجاوز Law of Property is that part of the law which determines the nature قانون مالکیت آن بخش از قانون است که ماهیت and extent of the rights which people may enjoy over land and other و حدود حقوقی را که افراد می‌توانند بر زمین و سایر (iv) Law of Succession is that part of the law which determines the devolu- موارد دیگر لذت ببرند، تعیین می‌کند. (چهارم) قانون ارث آن بخش از قانون است که تعیین می‌کند tion of property on the death of the former owner. تکامل اموال پس از مرگ مالک قبلی. (v) Family Law is that branch of the law which defines the rights, duties, (پنجم) قانون خانواده آن شاخه از قانون است که حقوق، وظایف، and status of husband and wife, parent and child, and other members of و وضعیت همسر و والدین و فرزندان و سایر اعضای a household. خانواده را تعریف می‌کند.

question:1_ Translate the following legal text into colloquial Farsi 2_ Place the Persian and English text side by side in the table 3_ From the beginning to the end of the text, there should be an English sentence on the left side and a Persian sentence on the right side. 4- Using legal language for Persian translation .Law may be classified in various ways. The four main divisions are as follows: (a) Criminal Law and Civil Law Public Law and Private Law (c) Substantive Law and Procedural Law (d) Municipal Law and Public International Law Criminal Law is that part of the law which characterizes certain kinds of wrongdoings as offences against the State, not necessarily violating any pri- vate right, and punishable by the State. Crime is defined as an act of dis- obedience of the law forbidden under pain of punishment. The punishment State absolute because discharge. it For disturbs example, the tO public commit peace and murder is security, an for crime ranges from death or imprisonment to money penalty (fine) or offence against the SO the action iS brought by the State and not the victim. 'T'he police are the public servants whose duty is the prevention and detec- tion of crime and the prosecution of offenders before the courts of law. Private citizens may legally enforce the criminal law by beginning proceed- ings themselves, but, except in minor cases of common assault, rarely do so in practice. Civil Law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals towards each other. It includes the following: Law of Contract, dealing with that branch of the law which deter- mines whether a promise is legally enforceable and what are its legal consequences. Law of Tort. A tort is defined as a civil wrong for which the remedy is a common law action for unliquidated (i.e. unspecified or unascertained) damages and wbich is not exclusively the breach of a contract or breacb of trust or other merely equitable obligation. (Salmond: Law of Torts.) Examples of torts are: nuisance, negligence, defamation, and trespass Law of Property is that part of the law which determines the nature Seoery - for example, rights of 'ownership' of land, or rights under a and extent of the rights which people may enjoy over land and other (iv) Law of Succession is that part of the law which determines the devolu- tion of property on the death of the former owner. (v) Family Law is that branch of the law which defines the rights, duties, and status of husband and wife, parent and child, and other members of a household.

answer:| English | Persian | |---------|--------| | Law may be classified in various ways. The four main divisions are as follows: | قانون را می‌توان به روش‌های مختلف طبقه‌بندی کرد. چهار دسته‌بندی اصلی به قرار زیر است: | | (a) Criminal Law and Civil Law | (الف) حقوق جزا و حقوق مدنی | | Public Law and Private Law | حقوق عمومی و حقوق خصوصی | | (c) Substantive Law and Procedural Law | (ج) حقوق ماهوی و حقوق رویه‌ای | | (d) Municipal Law and Public International Law | (د) حقوق داخلی و حقوق بین‌الملل عمومی | | Criminal Law is that part of the law which characterizes certain kinds of wrongdoings as offences against the State, not necessarily violating any private right, and punishable by the State. | حقوق جزا آن بخش از قانون است که انواع خاصی از تخلفات را به عنوان جرائم علیه دولت مشخص می‌کند، که الزاماً نقض هیچ حق خصوصی نیست و توسط دولت قابل مجازات است. | | Crime is defined as an act of disobedience of the law forbidden under pain of punishment. | جرم به عنوان عملی از نافرمانی از قانون که تحت عذاب مجازات ممنوع شده است، تعریف می‌شود. | | The punishment State absolute because discharge. it For example, to commit murder is an offence against the public peace and security, punishable by the State ranging from death or imprisonment to a money penalty (fine). | مجازات توسط دولت به صورت مطلق اجرا می‌شود، زیرا آن را رفع می‌کند. به عنوان مثال، ارتکاب قتل جرمی علیه امنیت و صلح عمومی است که مجازات آن توسط دولت و می‌تواند از مرگ یا زندان تا جریمه نقدی باشد. | | So the action is brought by the State and not the victim. | پس اقدام توسط دولت انجام پذیرفته و نه قربانی. | | The police are the public servants whose duty is the prevention and detection of crime and the prosecution of offenders before the courts of law. | پلیس، خادمین عمومی هستند که وظیفه آنها پیشگیری و کشف جرم و تعقیب مجرمین پیش دادگاه‌های قضایی است. | | Private citizens may legally enforce the criminal law by beginning proceedings themselves, but, except in minor cases of common assault, rarely do so in practice. | شهروندان خصوصی می توانند با آغاز رسیدگی‌ها توسط خودشان، قانون جزا را به طور قانونی اجرا کنند، اما به جز در موارد خفیف ضرب و شتم معمولی، نادر است که در عمل چنین کنند. | | Civil Law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals towards each other. | حقوق مدنی با حقوق و وظایف افراد نسبت به یکدیگر سر و کار دارد. | | It includes the following: | این شامل موارد زیر است: | | Law of Contract, dealing with that branch of the law which determines whether a promise is legally enforceable and what are its legal consequences. | حقوق قرارداد، که با آن شاخه از قانون سروکار دارد که تعیین می‌کند آیا وعده‌ای قانوناً قابل اجرا است و پیامدهای حقوقی آن چیست. | | Law of Tort. A tort is defined as a civil wrong for which the remedy is a common law action for unliquidated (i.e. unspecified or unascertained) damages and which is not exclusively the breach of a contract or breach of trust or other merely equitable obligation. | حقوق دلواختگی. دلواختگی به عنوان یک اشتباه مدنی تعریف می‌شود که درمان آن یک اقدام حقوق عرفی برای غرامت‌های غیرمشخص است و به طور انحصاری نقض قرارداد یا نقض اعتماد یا سایر تعهدات صرفاً انصافی نیست. | | Examples of torts are: nuisance, negligence, defamation, and trespass | نمونه‌هایی از دلواختگی‌ها عبارتند از: مزاحمت، بی‌دقتی، تهمت و تجاوز | | Law of Property is that part of the law which determines the nature and extent of the rights which people may enjoy over land and other | حقوق اموال آن قسمتی از قانون است که ماهیت و حدود حقوقی که افراد می‌توانند بر زمین و سایر اموال لذت ببرند را تعیین می‌کند. | | Law of Succession is that part of the law which determines the devolution of property on the death of the former owner. | حقوق ارث، آن قسمتی از قانون است که سرنوشت اموال پس از مرگ مالک پیشین را تعیین می‌کند. | | Family Law is that branch of the law which defines the rights, duties, and status of husband and wife, parent and child, and other members of a household. | حقوق خانواده، آن شاخه از قانون است که حقوق، وظایف، و وضعیت شوهر و زن، والدین و فرزندان، و سایر اعضای یک خانواده را تعریف می‌کند. |

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